Causes
Offspring too large or badly positioned, narrow birth canal (common in brachycephalic breeds), weak contractions, exhausted uterus, very large or very small litters.
Diagnosis
Physical examination plus X-ray/ultrasound to assess the number, size and position of the offspring and evaluate their condition.
Treatment
EMERGENCY: depending on the case, drugs to strengthen contractions or, very often, a caesarean section. Speed is key to the survival of the mother and the offspring.
Prevention
Plan breeding with veterinary advice, know the expected due date, avoid crossing breeds with a size mismatch. In brachycephalic breeds, consider a scheduled caesarean section.
